Organizational Psychology Essay Example for Free

Organizational Psychology Essay An employee of a certain company responsible for fueling company vehicles was given a credit card for the purpose of paying bills after fueling the vehicles. One night after all the companys vehicles were all packed, the employee decided to fuel his friends cars and pay using the companys credit card. The employer had asked him why he acted unprofessionally but the employee found nothing wrong with using the credit card to pay bills that did not belong to the company. When the employer consulted other professionals about his employees case, he was advised to do a psychology test on his employee. In Kenote town, a policeman was reported to have shot and killed seven people in a restaurant after he was insulted by a group of people in the restaurant, among them his friends. When the employer was questioned about his mental status and whether he had undergone any psychological testing, the employer said that the policeman looked intelligent and had other required qualifications, so there was no need for a psychological test. Organizations undergo various problems due to lack of psychological testing as well as practicing it. In some cases, workers feel it is infringing their privacy. The management of an organization should be very kin on the type of people they employ. Determining the peoples ability, intelligence or attainment requires a standard procedure which is the tests procedures. Different organizations perform different duties or have different objectives therefore will have some different specific areas of assessment. Psychological Tests  These are tests obtained from a prepared standardized procedure used to assess the mental status of a person as compared to the normal mental status in order to determine a persons intelligence and ability. This is mostly done through asking questions then assessing the responses. The importance of psychological tests is that they provide a means of measuring the abilities and characteristics of an individual (Armstrong, 2006). These tests are used by managers to determine the employee competence and morale and for reliable management training. Some professional ethics do not accept these kind of tests and view them as invasive to human rights while some of them go against the labor laws that protect employees from being used for experiments. When conducting some of these tests, the employee acts as a laboratory animal since the tests are done on him (ODonohue and Ferguson 2003). There are five types of psychological tests. Intelligence psychological tests, personality psychological tests, aptitude psychological tests, ability psychological tests, and attainment psychological tests (Armstrong, 2006). Intelligence tests are use to determine the general thinking and reasoning of an individual and personality tests are used to predict the behavior of a person in the role that he/she will be given or is given at the time. The use of psychological tests A good psychological test is one with sensitivity, reliability, standardization and validity characteristics. When selecting a test to use, these characteristics should be considered, for the outcome of the assessment to be of quality (Armstrong, 2006). There are basic standards for psychological tests use which are based on a formal psychometric assessment. This formal psychometric assessment should have an administrative and scoring manual with the scoring characteristics and points, it should show evidence of being reliable, should be valid for the purpose to which it is being conducted and to the people it is being conducted on, and should have a reference group data (Toplis et al. , 2004). The use of psychological tests requires that the test protocols be used by only professionals, the psychologists or if one would like to use them, then he/she must be certified to have the capability of using the tests and then authorized to do so (Toplis et al. 2004). This is based on the acquisition of the psychological tests. The tests are acquired on permission from the authors, copy right holders and distributors. It is therefore unethical to copy write or photocopy the psychological tests standards be it the psychometric assessments or the psychometric questionnaires. On the psychological tests security, the storage should be done according to the administrative, scoring and interpretation requirements. Assessment too should be done according to the same procedure as storage. There are access and storage policies that protect the tests such as not interfering with the ethical purpose of testing, and policies on what range of errors are accepted in the scoring and interpretation of the tests, in order to maintain the validity (Toplis et al. , 2004). The period to which a record should be kept is decided by a psychologist based on certain factors. The factors are such as the clients requests, acting professionally to abide by professional accountability and legislative factors. Psychological Tests Confidentiality and tests Results  Professional ethics indicate that it is the responsibility of a psychologist to inform the people being tested or the people to undergo a certain psychological test, of the terms and conditions regarding confidentiality of the testing situation. It is also their responsibility to control the access to the psychological test protocols. It is always the psychologist contracted by a manager in most cases to conduct a test on an employee. The psychologist has all the responsibility to keep the results or release them based on the terms and conditions agreed upon by the employer (Toplis et al. 2004). In case of a government facility, the release of reports are according to legislative acts on information. Governments have different systems in different facilities so the information release will also depend on the type of facility and the system while considering the legislation on the freedom of information. The systems have different application procedures for release of information. Psychological testing and Labor law. Labor law requires employers to adhere to good labor market practice rule. In psychological testing, there are no legislations that apply to the personality tests, though there are areas that the test can be considered invalid. An example of a case where a psychological test can be considered invalid is when it has exclusionary effects on women. This can be treated a sex discrimination case. Psychological testing is considered as a matter of employee privacy and there are rules to be followed before an employer or a manager decides on psychological testing on an employee (International Labor, 1993). According to the International Labor Office report (1993) the initial step is for an employer to negotiate with a local trade union on the psychological test the employer intends to conduct on his/her employees. The trade union and the employer must come to an agreement, failure to which the trade union must give the reasons for refusal in writing and submit proposals of terminating negotiations within ten days. Fresh negotiations can only be done on the trade unions proposal and if no agreement is made then the employer cannot impose the psychological test until review by the national trade union (International Labor, 1993). Conclusion Employers/managers need psychological testing to determine the ability and the competency of those that they want to employ or those that they have employed. Some of the psychological tests are not accepted by the trade unions and are considered as infringing the privacy of the employee. The employers have to abide by the labor law requirements and trade union rules to make sure they are not in problems. The managers themselves cannot conduct the tests, they have to look for professionals in that field as that is what is ethically considered right. All these are discussed in this paper.

Literature Review Train Travel Essay Example for Free

Literature Review Train Travel Essay In order to conduct a thorough review of train travel it is important to first place my own work within the wider context of the existing knowledge in relation to this topic. By looking at studies which have already been conducted it is possible to observe questions which remain unanswered in this field and to look critically at existing literature in order to give my personal study a greater sense of purpose and to ensure that it makes significant contribution to the field. Social Construct of Train Travel A particular area of study relating to train travel which seems interesting to me is that which is pointed out by Watts (2008). In her paper she examines the social, imaginary and material work involved in making a journey by rail. Following ethnographic research consisting of quotations and photographs the author argues that rail passengers are spatially distributed when they make a journey by train. In her analysis she points out that a great deal of research has been conducted into the way in which time and space are constructed in society, however few researchers have conducted a specific analysis of the items and people involved in this creation. As a result this is an area I am keen to investigate as the way in which time and space is created is an area which invites more specific investigation and simultaneously this topic in relation to train travel has had little academic attention. Therefore by investigating this topic I feel I would be able to fill a gap in existing research. A further article which builds on this notion of the social construct of travelling by rail is that of Bissell (2008). In his study he looks at â€Å"some of the fluid relationships between everyday visuality, materiality and mobility through practices of contemporary railway travel in Britain† (1) The article looks primarily at the visual issues in train travel including the interior of the carriage and the landscape viewed through the window in relation to how these affect the perceptions of time, space and location throughout the journey. Such a take on train travel is something which I am very interested in and by using the conclusions made in this paper I would be able to add to the cannon of debate on this topic to contrast the findings of this study with those from an American perspective, to broaden this debate into a multi cultural arena where it may be the case that a vastly different social construct is created through train travel. This notion is extremely interesting to me and is one which, as it is yet to be developed from a transnational context, would therefore allow me to add to the academic body of knowledge on this topic. Train Travel for Business Along with the social construct of train travel another area which much literature has been conducted into is train travel in relation to alleviating problems for businesses. As train travel is often undertaken by business professionals who may need to get from two areas which are relatively far apart and are both subject to high levels of street congestion the degree to which train travel is an effective way for businesses to get to different locations for meetings or negotiations I feel therefore is an important one. One paper which has done this in relation to the relative effectiveness of train travel versus air or road travel for businesses is that of Bhat (1995). In his paper Bhat deploys an extremely qualitative and thorough evaluation of what he terms the ‘independence of irrelevant alternatives’ (IIA) in order for him to be able to come to the conclusion that different approaches to this topic elicited a different set of results. As this paper had a heavy weighting on the effectiveness of specific models in investigating this topic I feel that one way in which it can be improved is to select an approach or a model from the outset, and then stick with this throughout in order for the conclusion to be more orientated around the travel mode as opposed to the model itself. Nonetheless this paper does point out to me that the heteroscedastic model is superior to both the multinomial logit and nested logic models in the quality of results it is able to generate and therefore it will be worth me bearing this in mind when I come to conduct my own research. Another paper on a similar topic to this explores the relationship between the timing of your journey and the choice of which transportation mode you take. Conducted by Nurul Habib et al. (2009) this paper conducts a correlational analysis of these two decisions and comes to the conclusion that unobserved factors contributed to both the decision of which time to undertake your journey and which transport mode to take. Something I found particularly helpful about this paper was that it pointed out the tendency for congested peak travel periods to expand which is a phenomenon known as ‘peak spreading’. As this paper provides empirical evidence for this notion is therefore justifies further investigation owing to the importance of travel between cities in today’s society. Similarly, as this paper utilises a multinomial logit model, a discrete-continuous econometric model and a continuous time hazard model the issues relating to the effectiveness of these models has been highlighted to me as an area I will need to conduct a further amount of research in to in order to ensure that the method I ultimately select is effective in generating reliable results. Along with this issue of which model to apply to my research a study by Kroes and Sheldon (1988) point out another issue I should be aware of when conducting research into train travel. In their article they conduct a review of the stated preference method in the transport sector by another of other academics and assess the value of using this method in comparison to other similar methods to assessing why people have selected the particular mode of transport. As this article covers a range of other train transport related studies it therefore is useful in assessing the literature in this field as a whole as it has a rather broad scope. By looking at the individual studies and the successful and unsuccessful elements of them I am therefore able to select a method which suits my particular study most aptly and as a result conduct a thorough and exhaustive investigation into my chosen area of train travel. Travel Time Key names in the field of rail travel include Laura Watts and David Bissell. Something which they have both written about is the notion of travel time in relation to passenger experience. In a study by Watts and Urry (2008) the authors attempt to provide evidence to dispel the myth that time spent travelling is wasted and dead. In order to encourage funding into travel projects the authors propose that rather that attempting to minimise travel time, by linking the notion of travelling with activities and fantasies they therefore suggest that the perception that travel time is wasted is therefore incorrect. Through looking at activities such as engaging with other passengers, accessing wireless networks, views out the window and using items you have packed in your bag they therefore provide evidence which ultimately represent travel time as a useful being of time where practical and fantasy activities can be indulged, thus encouraging investment into travel projects and infrastructures. I find this research particularly useful as it has called for a revaluation of previously taken for granted attitudes towards travelling by train. By looking at the topic more broadly and dispelling common misconceptions the authors are able to create an article which both covers brand new ground and gives attention to an under investigated issue. The theoretical approach they establish therefore is something I wish to build upon in my own study as the issue is so recent it therefore is yet to have any support or criticism surrounding it. A further study by Bissell also investigates this topic however from a different perspective. Bissell (2010) looks at the notion of community and atmosphere within a train carriage. He notes something which I find interesting, that there is a certain atmosphere within a train carriage which has a powerful effect on the traveller in terms of a reticent passivity which contradicts a set of forces which work when travelling by train which prime an individual to act. As far as I am aware this societal approach to the atmosphere on a train carriage has only been conducted in relation to psychology and obedience before and therefore it is very interesting that Bissell has looked at it within the field of transport. Whilst I feel that this study is extremely relevant and is something a great number of people may be able to relate to some criticism I have is that the notion he is describing is extremely intangible and whilst he does provide extensive primary research as evidence the atmosphere is difficult to pin and down and evaluate scientifically. Another study on this topic is that of Ole (2009). This study looks at the idea of mobility in urban areas. The author describes the tendency for modern cities to be represented not just by their static venues but also by their transit spaces and argues that there should be a re configuration of the way in which identities of place are conceptualised and that transit spaces ought to become a location for meaningful interaction and pleasure. As with the Watt and Urry article this paper calls for a revaluation of the attitudes towards train travel and therefore provides a useful framework which forms a base upon which it would be possible to build upon and expand in my own study. Conclusion Throughout my literature study I have been able to identify the key theorists in the field of train travel and highlight some potent and relevant issues in this area of study. By looking critically at research which has already been conducted I am now able to ensure that my own study brings new ideas into academic discourse and that my investigation does not cover ground already subject to analysis. The gaps I have noted and other observations made throughout the body of my text therefore now place me in an ideal position to be able to come to a conclusion based on relevant research which will be will informed and critical in its scope. Works Cited Bissell, David. â€Å"Visualising everyday geographies: practices of vision through travel-time† Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 34 (2008) 42- 60 Bissell  David. â€Å"Passenger mobilities: affective atmospheres and the sociality of public transport.† Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 28 (2010) 270- 89 Bhat, Chandra. â€Å"A heteroscedastic extreme value model of intercity travel mode choice.† Transportation Research Part B: Methodological 29 (1995) 471- 83 Kroes, Eric P. and Sheldon, Robert J., â€Å"Stated Preference Methods: An Introduction.† Journal of Transport Economics and Policy 22 (1988), 11- 25 Nurul Habib, Khandker, Day, Nicholas, and Miller, Eric. â€Å"An investigation of commuting trip timing and mode choice in the Greater Toronto Area: Application of a joint discrete-continuous model.† Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice 43 (2009) 639- 53 Ole, Jensen B. â€Å"Flows of Meaning, Cultures of Movements Urban Mobility as Meaningful Everyday Life Practice.† Mobilities 4 (2009) 139-58 Watts, Laura. â€Å"The art and craft of train travel.† Social and Cultural Geography 9 (2008): 711- 26 Watts  Laura and Urry  John. â€Å"Moving methods, travelling times.† Environment and Planning

International Human Resource Theories: Coca Cola Case Study

International Human Resource Theories: Coca Cola Case Study IHRM concepts in Coca Colas practices and reasons to transfer employees to the host countries 6 Selecting staff for global assignments in Coca Cola 7 The disadvantages of traditional selection in Coca Cola 8 Abstract This research project explains how the International Human Resource theories are used in Coca Cola as a multinational organization. More over it clarifies the IHRM theoretical side and how the company uses it in its practices. Also it explains both of the strength and weak points of the practical methods. Coca cola is an example of Multinational enterprises (MNEs) as it operates its business in more than 200 countries. Introduction Local Human Resource Management practices are different of international Human Resource Practices, because the core different in the organizational structure. The structure of a Multinational organization as Coca Cola should be different of another American local organization. These differences come from the significant role and senior strategies of the company. This should cause some significant change in the HR practices and functions. Since Coca Cola is a company operates its business around a huge number of countries around the world it began to respond to both of local and international needs. Environment, culture and political differences exist from a region to another. Globalization is the most important factor of the multinational enterprises phenomenon. Coca Cola one of the American companies became a multinational company to take the benefits of new markets and to minimize the labour costs. Haile (2002) mentioned that Bernadin and Russell (1998) and Robbins (1997) all stated that Coca-Cola and Pepsi receive more than half of their revenues from operations outside the United States. These reasons and more encourage the company to operate its business outside the boundaries. While the company started its operations outside USA it considered the environmental, cultural and political change. Also it considered the differences among the multinational employees. Therefore it started to find the methods and the practices which help to avoid any obstacles since the IHRM has new concepts were developed internationally. As a core point, the international human resource practices should be aligned with the predefined strategic business goals. Companys background Coca Cola was invested in May 1886 by Dr. John S. Pemberton in Atlanta, Georgia. Currently, its operations are in more than 200 countries, and with diverse work force of approximately 55,000 employees. The local and global strategy The strategic vision of the company is to achieve five strategic goals: Profit, people, value, partners and planet. One of the above strategic is people, which is the most important element in Coca Cola as people are the workforce which operates the whole work. Moreover the company gives its attention to the HRM to control the human functions and roles and to be aligning with the companys senior strategy. In line with the higher objectives of the company, human resources management seriously seeking to get the best management achieve the objectives of the company. For these reasons, IHRM should define know the structure of the company as a global. (The Times Newspaper, 2005, P. 2) The companys structure The home country of Coca Cola is USA it controls both of centralization and localizations functions. Senior decisions at The Coca Cola Company are made by an Executive Committee of 12 company Officers. This committee helped to shape the strategic priorities. The chair of the executive committee acts as a head for the company and chairs the board meetings. He is also the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) and as such he is the senior decision maker. Other executives are responsible either for the major regions (e.g. Africa) or have an important business specialization for example the Chief Financial Officer. (The Times Newspaper, 2005, P. 3) There are seven main regions where Coca Cola operates in as the following: North America, Africa, Asia, Europe, Eurasia, Middle East, Latin America. Each region has divided into countries and each country has its own structure the following figure explains the structure of Coca Cola in Great Britain. (The Times Newspaper, 2005, P. 3) IHRM concepts in Coca Colas practices and reasons to transfer employees to the host countries Staff selection, international assignments, international training and development, international compensation, and IHRM in the host Country context are some key concepts of the international practices which Coca Colas HRM is responsible to deal with. And it is important to know the reason of transferring people from a region to another among Coca Cola parent company, host countries and subsidiaries. The reason of sending staff for international assignment in Coca Cola is to achieve three major goals within short and long terms: to fill positions, develop the management and to fulfil Coca Colas development. (Hartono 2009) The following table shows the reasons of transferring staff from the parent country of Coca Cola to the host countries (e.g. china). Why does Coca Cola transfer staff from the parent country (USA) to the host countries Transfer of technical or Managerial knowledge, training of subsidiary managers, or lack of qualified local personal (Position Filling) Level of education in host country is low Subsidiary is young Subsidiary is Greenfield establishment Gain international experience develop global awareness (Management Development) MNC is more internationalized MNC is large Control and coordination of subsidiary operations (Organizational Development) Uncertainly avoidance in home country is high Level of cultural distance between home country and host country is high Level of political risk in host country is high Subsidiary is large Subsidiary is majority-owned Subsidiary is higher in corporate reporting chain Subsidiary is young Subsidiary is under-performing improvement of communication channels between head quarter and subsidiary (Organizational Development) Level of cultural distance between home and host country is high Level of political risk in host country is high Subsidiary is young Selecting staff for global assignments in Coca Cola Hartono (2009) argued that studies explained that selecting employees for global tasks to achieve international specific jobs is difficult. Also wrong selection may lead to significant problems. Therefore Coca Cola developed its own system for careful selecting employees, in this system the company determines carefully the appropriate persons for each assignment. (Slavenski 2003) In Coca Cola they always give enough time to assess employees they wish to go for an international assignment. First step is to receive applications from the employees who find that he is qualified for the task. Then conduct five hours assessment for all the applicants to identify the following nine skills: 1. Organizing and planning 2. Perception and analysis 3. Decision making 4. Oral communication 5. Decisiveness 6. Adaptability 7. Interpersonal skills 8. Written communication 9. Perseverance Second step is to determine the best applicants who have succeed in the first assessment and ask them to return next day for the organizational orientation, also there is three days of training for the line managers who are responsible for this selection. In Coca Cola usually the third step is an interview to select one of three applicants to do the international assignment. Comparing with the old approach of selecting staff to do a global task there are a significant change in the way and technique used currently in Coca Cola. According to Slavenski (2003) he stated that These results indicate that the new method of interviewing is more effective than traditional interviewing. Hence, the assessment/hiring ratio was lowered from 3: 1 to 2:1. T hat is, for every two people assessed in the center, one could be selected. The cost savings amounted to about $48,000 per center or $4,000 per candidate. The disadvantages of traditional selection in Coca Cola Selecting people who have equivalent skills, information, and organizational expectations is more complex than it earliest appears. Someone who has been successful somewhere else in a related position may not always be a good selection. Old selection in most organizations is not as useful as it could be because it is not based on an analysis of job necessities, rather than being prepared and logical, it is unofficial and incompatible, making it hard to compare and assess candidates, it may involve unrelated, and sometimes unlawful, it allows the candidates small chance to express actual job skills and it is based on poor inspection and records and generally relies on the interviewers ability to bring to mind complex information about number of candidates. Lxr- ÃŽ ±: Molecular Link in Epidermal Microenvironment Lxr- ÃŽ ±: Molecular Link in Epidermal Microenvironment ABSTARCT The nuclear receptor LXR-ÃŽ ± is a transcriptional regulator involved in numerousepidermal processes including proliferation, differentiation, permeability barrierformation, inflammatory responses, skin development and homeostasis. Owing to itscrucial for multiple cell types in the skin, its activation in one skin cell type mayinfluence its expression and activation in other, thereby having a functional impact. Inthis study we investigated the effects that LXR-ÃŽ ± activation in keratinocytes would exerton LXR-ÃŽ ± expression in melanocytes. For this, we cultured melanocytes from theclinically healthy subjects and them nurtured with the media from the LXR-ÃŽ ± activated (by both Ascorbic acid and Atorvastatin along with 22-R hydroxycholestrol) keratinocyte. The DOPA staining verified the growth of melanocytes and the validationfor viability was done by flow cytometry. The results so obtained supported ourspeculation that LXR-ÃŽ ± activation in the normal healthy melanocytes may lead to theirapoptosis. Therefore, LXR-ÃŽ ± may be a critical player in keratinocyte and melanocytebiology and could be a potential target for skin disease management. INTRODUCTION Epidermal melanocytes form a functional and structural unit with neighboring keratinocyte. There is apparently a close relationship between melanocytes and keratinocytes that is important for melanocyte survival and differentiation. and that may involve keratinocyte-mediated cytokines [1]. Growth factors produced by adjacent keratinocytes regulate the proliferation and differentiation of melanocytes [2-5]. Therefore, changes in keratinocytes function might have a significant effect on melanocyte survival [6, 7]. The LXRs in skin physiology and pathology have evolved rapidly in recent years as they modulate epidermal proliferation, carcinogenesis, differentiation and permeability barrier function, which identifies them as promising drug targets for the treatment of skin diseases. The nuclear receptors LXR-ÃŽ ± and LXR-ÃŽ ² are expressed in murine and human keratinocytes [8, 9]. LXR activation also stimulates epidermal lipid synthesis, lamellar body secretion and lipid processing in th e stratum corneum [10]. LXR-ÃŽ ±activators stimulate keratinocyte differentiation and also promote epidermal permeability barrier homoeostasis [10]. Activation of LXR-ÃŽ ±by oxysterols stimulates keratinocyte differentiation, thereby, making LXR-ÃŽ ±important in keratinocytes differentiation as well [11, 12]. LXR-ÃŽ ±is also known to play a key role as metabolic checkpoint that modulates cell proliferation in skin. At proper dosage, synthetic LXR agonists are safe on endothelial cells and may even transrepress inflammatory reactions [13].It has also been found that LXR-ÃŽ ± might be playing an important role in pathogenesis of pigmentary disorders like psoriasis [14, 15]and vitiligo [16]. Changes in the expression of this receptor in various diseased conditions of skin make it a candidate gene worth investigation, as it may be critical players in keratinocyte and melanocyte biology and homeostasis [17]. In this article we characterize the effect of alteration in expression of LXR-ÃŽ ± in the keratinocytes influence the survival of the melanocytes. In our previous studies we have already explored the effects of agonists and activators of LXR-ÃŽ ± on its own gene expression in keratinocytes. We here report the effect of melanocytes viability following LXR-ÃŽ ± activation with Atorvastatin+22R hydroxycholestrol and Ascorbic acid +22R hydroxycholestrolin cultured keratinocytes, with both the cell types derived from of the same the skin biopsy METHODS Selection of the subjects and clinical evaluation This study was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee. A total number of 6 controls were enrolled, after their informed consent. The age range was 18–40 years. Skin grafts were collected in the phosphate buffer saline (PBS) and immediately transported to the laboratory in ice. Cellular models employed Fresh biopsy specimens were obtained under aseptic conditions in phosphate buffer saline with antibiotics (penicillin and streptomycin). Keratinocyte Cultures: Culturing of keratinocytes derived from skin biopsies of clinically healthy subjects were carried out in Keratinocytes Specific Media containing no antibiotics. The treatment with Atorvastatin+22R hydroxycholestrol and Ascorbic acid +22R hydroxycholestrol was performed. Cells in one of the wells were incubated with 30Â µM Atorvastatin and the other well was treated with 0.2mg/ml Ascorbic acid or 12 hours [18]. Then 10 Â µM 22R hydroxycholestrol was added to both the wells and cells were then incubated for 48 hours. Melanocyte Cultures: Culturing of melanocytes derived from skin biopsies of same clinically healthy subjects was carried out in Melanocyte Media Promocell containing no antibiotics. Then the media from the above mentioned treated keratinocytes was transferred to the respective melanocytes cultures for consecutive three days. Cell identification Keratinocytes: To verify that the cells cultured from the skin biopsies exhibited the characteristic signatures of keratinocytes, Melanocytes :DOPA staining To verify that the cells cultured from the skin biopsies exhibited the characteristic signatures of melanocytes, DOPA staining was performed following a modified method previously described [19]. RNA isolation and cDNA synthesis Total RNA was isolated using the Tri Reagent kit (Ambion, Austin, TX, USA), and cDNA was synthesized using the First-Strand cDNA Synthesis kit (Fermentas, St. Leon-Rot, Germany) following the manufacturers’ protocols. Semiquantitative RT-PCR Semiquantitative RT-PCR was used to determine the gene tran- scriptional expression. PCR amplification was performed using the GeneAmp PCR System 9700 (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, USA). All primers were synthesized by Sigma (St. Louis, MO, USA). The primer sequences used are given in Table S2. PCR amplification of cDNA was performed in a reaction mixture containing 10X polymerase, 2 ll cDNA template and sterile RNAse-free water added to a total volume of 25 ll. All PCR reagents were from Fermentas. We first amplified a housekeeping gene encoding b-actin, to monitor RNA quality and cDNA synthesis and to ensure that equivalent amounts of cDNA were used in all PCR amplifications. All PCR products were analysed by separation on a 2% agarose gel stained with ethidium bromide. Annexin V staining Cultured melanocytes after culturing in conditioned media were were processed as previously mentioned [20] before being used for Annexin V staining (Roche, Mannheim, Germany), according to the manufacturer’s instructions. RESULTS Identifications of melanocytes Melanocytes were cultured with conditioned media from treated keratinocytes (both cell types derived from from skin biopsies of the same patient). After getting pure cultures, these cells were characterized by DOPA staining (Figure 1). LXR-ÃŽ ± mRNA expression We checked the expression profile of LXR-ÃŽ ± gene in melanocytes cultured in the conditioned media was compared to the controls (Figure.2). The aim was to detect any change in gene expression of LXR-ÃŽ ± and its effector genes . Results revealed the higher presence of LXR-ÃŽ ± mRNA expression in melanocytes cultured in bot the treated conditioned media compared to controls. Effect on the apoptosis Experiments were performed and it was interesting to find that there was an increase in the apoptosis of melanocytes nurtured with the media transferred from the keratinocytes treated Ascorbic acid + 22-R hydroxycholestrol i.e. 26% compared to 17.6% in the melanocytes nurtured with the media transferred from the keratinocytes treated Atorvastatin + 22-R hydroxycholestrol whereas the control non- treated melanocytes showed 10% apoptotic cell population (Figure 3). DISCUSSION The role multivalent LXR-ÃŽ ± has recently been described in many skin diseases. A marked expression of LXR-ÃŽ ± has been observed in cells adjacent to dermal papilla, speculating that it may correlate with site of hair melanocytes [21]. Important genes involved in regulation of both keratinocytes and melanocytes are target genes of LXR-ÃŽ ±; it can be speculated that LXR-ÃŽ ± might be playing the important role in pathogenesis of varied skin disorders and homeostasis [17]. Studies have previously shown that chronic activation of LXR-ÃŽ ± in pancreatic ÃŽ ²-cell provoked lipid dysregulation and concomitant apoptosis. To verify the speculation, the cultured melanocytes from the clinically healthy subjects were nurtured with the media from the LXR-ÃŽ ± activated (by both Vitamin C and Atorvastatin alongwith 22-R hydroxycholestrol) keratinocyte media. The DOPA staining in Figure 1 shows the viable melanocytes which were further validated by FACS and the results so obtained supported our speculation that LXR-ÃŽ ± activation in the normal healthy melanocytes may lead to their apoptosis, as LXR-ÃŽ ± is known to inhibit cell proliferation and enhance apoptosis (Figure 3). We have already reported that the LXR-ÃŽ ± expression was present in human melanocytes and keratinocytes [15, 16]. In this study, we compared the expression of LXR-ÃŽ ± in conditioned media from keratinocytes treated with Ascorbic acid + 22-R hydroxycholestrol and Atorvastatin + 22-R hydroxyc holestrol compared to the control and found that mRNA expression of LXR-ÃŽ ± was significantly higher in both the treated groups as compared to the control.So, it can be said that there is an LXR-ÃŽ ± imbalance in the genesis of skin disorders. Although future studies will reveal whether LXR-ÃŽ ± dysregulation in skin cells contributes to the diseased state in vivo, the data presented here suggest a potential target for the development of a successful method of regulating the diseased skin conditions. Not only LXR-ÃŽ ± has a robust anti-inflammatory activity in skin, but they also modulate epidermal proliferation, differentiation and permeability barrier function. The abnormal increase in LXR-ÃŽ ±expression in the pancreatic islets of obese and diabetic animal models and the ability of LXR-ÃŽ ±ligands to induce cell dysfunction suggest the involvement of chronic LXR-ÃŽ ±in cell apoptosis [22] . Keeping in view, the findings reported here coupled with earlier reported findings, it is not unlikely that LXR-ÃŽ ± transcriptome may be of crucial importance, not only in understanding of genomic basis of skin disorders it could be useful in designing futuristic therapy for these skin disorders.

Mother Doesnt Know Best Essays -- Personal Narrative Profile Essays

Mother Doesn't Know Best As a little girl, I was sure that a good parent would allow me to eat all the cookies in the cookie jar or buy me toys at Toys R Us. When I got a little older, I figured that a good parent would let me stay up past ten o'clock on school nights. Then I became a teenager and I felt that a good parent would buy me a car and let me be independent. According to these definitions of a "good parent," my parents always fell short. It wasn't until I became a parent that I began to understand what a good parent really is. My two-year old daughter taught me this lesson in her simple childlike manner. Having church at eleven o'clock is difficult for our family. Church time is play time, followed by lunch, and ending with naps. Needless to say, we always struggle during that first hour before we can deposit both Jenny Beth and Juliana into the nursery for the remaining two hours. I admit, it's crazy to expect a one-year-old and a two-year-old to sit quietly through an hour of inspirational talks that they consider boring. Nevertheless, we attend church as a family. This particular Sunday was no different. "Mommy, look! Taylor! Taylor!" Jenny Beth said excitedly to me during the church service. She wasn't using her whispering church voice as we had rehearsed on several occasions. Needless to say, I was a bit exasperated and embarrassed. Besides, I knew that Scott and Joy Rowe, Taylor's parents, were sitting a few rows over. I had seen them enter and sit down. Their one-year-old daughter, Taylor, was in Scott's arms. I had even discreetly waved to them. Hastily, I rummaged through the diaper bag and retrieved two tattered and torn books that were well-loved and well-gnawed by my two daughters. These were... ...t only believes in her children but believes them as well. A good parent can admit when she's wrong and acknowledge when her children are right. A good parent says, "I'm sorry." After church was over, I went to Jenny, my smart two-year old, and hugged her. I told her that I was sorry and asked for her forgiveness. She hugged me back and kissed my lips. She had completely forgotten what she was mad about only moments earlier. Accustomed to being told to say "Sorry," she misunderstood my apology and said, "Horry(sorry), Mommy." My eyes filled with tears. She was so merciful. "Let's go nursery, Mommy!" she said with anticipation. I felt like a good parent again. I was still the mother that day; however, I played another role, as well. I was a student in my daughter's classroom. She taught me a valuable lesson about parenthood. Mother does not always know best.

Male and Female Roles in Sexual Selection :: Biology

Missing results graphs Why It Matters Sexual selection occurs across all species and is a key part of evolution. It allows animals to increase their fitness. Here are several interesting examples of cryptic female choice and male competition: 1) Males may perform courtship dances to show off their good genes. One species in which courtship dances can be observed are jumping spiders. Male spiders of this species wave their legs and arms to show females their abilities. Females choose a mate after seeing the dances. 2) One way for females to find a suitable mate is based on the resources a male will be able to provide. For instance, in the case of elephant seals, males fight over territories to win over a female. The â€Å"winner† of the fight shows the female that he has a territory and that he will be able to defend the offspring. 3) Additionally, in peacocks, the males have elaborate tails that attract females. Females choose a mate based on the ability of a male to show off his tail. The tail indicates to a female that a male has â€Å"good† genes to contribute to offspring. 4) In some animals, the roles of the genders may be switched. In seahorses, the males are responsible for giving birth and raising the offspring. In this case, males have more at stake and so the males are the â€Å"choosier† mate. They choose a female mate based on the female’s characteristics. 5) These ideas of sexual selection and cryptic female choice can be applied to humans. Women choose mates based on career perspectives, attractiveness, and resources. All these allow her to ensure her children will be healthy and successful. As you can see, it is important to research sexual selection across various species’. Similar mechanisms of selection are present in all animals. By learning how these mechanisms act in one species, it is possible to gain insight into the behavior of all animals, including human beings. Introduction Male Competition Versus Female Choice†¦ The sexual â€Å"arms race† is constantly going on within members of a species. While both male and female are trying to pass on their genes to the next generation, they both try to do this in a different way. Females are attempting to obtain genetic material from the best possible male in order to produce the fittest offspring, while males are trying solely to pass their own genes on to the next generation.

Volcanoes Essay -- essays research papers fc

A Look Into Volcanoes I. Introduction Volcano: defined is a mountain or hill formed by the accumulation of materials erupted through one or more openings (called volcanic vents) in the earth's surface. The term volcano can also refer to the vents themselves. Most volcanoes have steep sides, but some can be gently sloping mountains or even flat tablelands, plateaus, or plains. The volcanoes above sea level are the best known, but the vast majority of the world's volcanoes lie beneath the sea, formed along the global oceanic ridge systems that crisscross the deep ocean floor. According to the Smithsonian Institution, 1511 above-sea volcanoes have been active during the past 10,000 years, 539 of them erupting one or more times during written history. On average, 50 to 60 above-sea volcanoes worldwide are active in any given year; about half of these are continuations of eruptions from previous years, and the rest are new. Mount St. Helen Volcanic eruptions in populated regions are a significant threat to peo ple, property, and agriculture. The danger is mostly from fast-moving, hot flows of explosively erupted materials, falling ash, and highly destructive lava flows and volcanic debris flows. In addition, explosive eruptions, even from volcanoes in unpopulated regions, can eject ash high into the atmosphere, creating drifting volcanic ash clouds that pose a serious hazard to airplanes. II. Volcano Formation All volcanoes are formed by the accumulation of magma which is molten rock that forms below the earth's surface. Magma can erupt through one or more volcanic vents, which can be a single opening, a cluster of openings, or a long crack, called a fissure vent. It forms deep within the earth, generally within the upper part of the mantle which is one of the layers of the earth's crust, or less commonly, within the base of the earth's crust. High temperatures and pressures are needed to form magma. The solid mantle or crustal rock must be melted under conditions typically reached at dep ths of 50 to 60 mi. (80 to 100 km) below the earth's surface. Once tiny droplets of magma are formed, they begin to rise because the magma is less dense than the solid rock surrounding it. The processes that cause the magma to rise are poorly understood, but it generally moves upward toward lower pressure regions, squeezing into spaces between minerals within the soli... ...the first blobs of melt. As melting continues other minerals start to melt as well, and the chemistry of the magma changes. From studies like this geologists have determined that the early stages of a Hawaiian volcano's life is generated by magmas derived from only small degrees of partial melting (such as only 5% of the source melting and the rest staying behind). On the other hand, when the volcano really gets going (such as at Kilauea and Mauna Loa), the percentage of source rock that melts to produce the magma is perhaps as high as 20%. There are many other ways in which chemistry is used in volcanology, including the studies of volcanic gases, crater lakes, and trying to determine the temperatures that lava had at the time they were erupted even long after the eruption has ended. Bibliography Bibliography 1999 Microsoft Encarta; Volcanoes 1980 USGS; www.vulcan.wr.usgs.gov 2000 Volcano World; http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/frequent-questions/grp13/question1544.html 1980-2000 USGS; www.vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/photo/volcanoes/MSH/framework.html 1993-2000 Microsoft Corporation; various volcano media 2000 FEMA; www.fema.gov/library/volcanof.htm Word Count: 2186

Behavior Management of Exceptional Children

BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN: TRANSITION SERVICES Transition Services is defined by the 1997 Amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) as a coordinated set of activities for a student, designated within an outcome-oriented process, which promotes movement from school to post-school activities including: post-secondary education, career training, adult services, independent living, community participation, and integrated employment (including supported employment. The coordinated set of activities shall be based upon the individual needs of each student, taking into consideration his/her preferences and interests. IEP goals and objectives are required for the following areas: * Instruction * Related Services * Community Experiences * Development of employment and other post-school adult living objectives * Daily living skills and functional vocational evaluation are required. â€Å"The importance of the transition specialist, or career education specia list, in the types of projects cannot be underestimated. The relationships these staff members maintain with the participants are crucial to the structure and success of these services†(Bullis and Cheney, 1999). Vocational Assessments Vocational Evaluation is a comprehensive process that systematically uses work activities, (either real or simulated), as the focal point for assessment of capabilities, vocational exploration and guidance. The purpose of vocational evaluation is to assist individuals in vocational development. Vocational evaluation incorporates medical, psychological, social, vocational, cultural, and economic data into the assessment process to determine realistic vocational areas. Transition Planning Transition planning begins at a very early age. It continues through each educational phase of the student's life, culminating with adult living. A continuum of services focuses upon a student's preparation for transition through participation in career awareness activities, career exploration, vocational training and employment. A continuum of Transition Services has been developed to serve as a guideline for transition planning. The continuum begins at preschool and ends at age 22. Transition planning is documented in the Individualized Education Program (IEP) beginning at age 14. â€Å"There is a lack of student and parent output, little documentation of transition plan specifics for each student, and IEP that were almost exclusively academically focused with no obvious links between goal/objectives and transition outcomes. Indeed, these weaknesses in the use of the IEP process and document planning for transition directly affect the implementation of transition services†(Collet-Klingenberg, L. L. , 1998). It is the responsibility of the IEP chairperson – usually the special education teacher – to arrange IEP / transition planning meetings for students at age 14 and older. The IEP notice to parents must include the following information: * The purpose of the IEP meeting is to develop / review the IEP and to consider Transition Services for inclusion into the IEP. * The student is invited to attend the IEP meeting. * Appropriate agency representatives have been identified and invited to the IEP / transition planning meeting. The IEP transition meeting must include all required IEP participants, plus two other representatives, as follows: * Parents or Legal Guardians * Special Education Teacher * Regular Education Teacher * Public Agency Representative (if appropriate) * Student * Other Individuals at the discretion of the parent or agency * Interpreter, when the parent or legal guardian is deaf or not proficient in the English language. * Career Education Teacher / Coordinator If the student does not attend the meeting, steps should be taken to ensure that his/her preferences and interests are considered. If an invited agency representative is unable to attend the meeting, other steps shall be taken to obtain participation. The IEP /Transition Planning meeting participants will provide input for expected outcomes. The following questions may be discussed. * What are the interest, preferences, and goals of the student after graduating or exiting school? * What support would be required to reach post-secondary goals? * Will the student be referred to an adult agency? * What type of adult agency service(s) is needed after graduation, if any? Who will be responsible for the referral(s) (i. e. special education teacher, the school based staff, parent, student, others? * Who will follow-up to ensure that the linkage between the school and adult agency(ies) was established? The IEP Team will develop transition goals and objectives that focus on the desired adult outcomes (long range transition goals). Students' preferences, strengths and limitations, career / vocational skills development, n eeded support services, job availability, medical and transportation requirements are also considered. Parents' expectations of desired student outcomes should be obtained and considered. What exactly is the Transition Plan? The Transition Plan is a part of the IEP. It includes long-range transition goals, indicating the students' preferences and interests after exiting school, are identified. â€Å"The skills needed to be successful in post secondary educational and vocational; settings, such as self-awareness, awareness of appropriate career options, and the ability to engage in self-advocacy when necessary, takes many years to develop† (Janiga,s. , J. ; Costenbader, V. 2002). Transition Services needed to achieve the long-range goals are determined. Agencies involved in transition planning while the student is still in school should be identified. That involvement is considered â€Å"agency linkages†. Transition goals and objectives are written. Agency responsibilities should be recorded in the IEP on the Transition Plan. Transition activities (objectives), persons re sponsible for the activities, and timelines are recorded. If an agency fails to fulfill its responsibilities, the IEP Team must reconvene to identify alternative strategies. Transition plans are reviewed, discussed and developed annually. The special education teacher, who completes the Transition Checklist, maintains a summary of transition planning. The Transition Checklist is reviewed and updated annually at the IEP meeting. A copy of the Transition Checklist is provided to the parent / guardian for further reference and planning. To assist in the development of transition plans at the IEP meeting Guidelines for transition services agenda is used. The guidelines outline what should be done before, during and after the IEP meeting. Records Keeping The special education teacher maintains a portfolio for each student, beginning at age 14, or grade 9. The portfolio documents a collection of evidence of the student's skills, abilities, and employment competencies (see your school's Special Education Coordinator or your school-based Transition Coordinator to obtain the portfolio). The student is responsible for participation in the development and maintenance of his / her transition portfolio. Portfolios are maintained as documentation of transition services activities. Adult Agencies An adult agency representative can attend IEP / Transition meetings for students who are 16 years of age, or in the 11th grade, and thereafter, if considered necessary by the IEP Team. An agency representative may attend IEP / Transition meetings for student's age 14 or younger, if considered necessary by the IEP Team. Some students will move from school to adult life requiring little or no more involvement with adult agencies than their non-disabled peers. Examples of such agencies or services are community colleges, vocational technological schools, other post-secondary educational institutions and the military. Other students may require time-limited adult services, such as the Rehabilitation Services Administration (RSA). There are also students who will need ongoing support from adult agencies such as the Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Administration (MRDDA). The IEP Team will determine which services may be appropriate for such students. Adult agencies may include, but are not limited to, the following: * Rehabilitation Service Administration Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Administration * Commission on Mental Health Services * Others Private agencies representation may be invited by parent / guardian or student of appropriate: * College / Community College * Vocational Technical Schools * Adult Education Services/ Training * Armed Forces * Others Transportation for Special Education Transport ation is a related service for special education students when it is necessary in order for a student with a disability to participate in an appropriate educational program. The Multi-Disciplinary Team (MDT) makes individual decisions about transportation during the development of the Individualized Education Program (IEP) and placement. The MDT must consider the following: * Determine a need for specialized transportation and reflect the need in the student's IEP * Review the student's need for transportation at any IEP review * Qualifications for transportation include the following: * Limited sensory or physical endurance Significantly reduced intellectual development; and/or reduced problem solving skills Parents must do the following in order for transportation to be provided for their children: * Provide accurate address information to the Division of Special Education and ensure that it is updated if necessary during the school year * Call your child's principal of any address changes during the school year. It can take 3 to 10 school days to make transportation changes during the school year * Have your child ready when the bus arrives in the mor ning * Meet the school bus in the afternoon. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bullis, M. , ; Cheney, D. (1999). Vocational and Transition Interventions for Adolescents and Young Adults with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders. Focus on Exceptional Children, 7, 1-24. Collet-Klingenberg, L. L. , (1998). The Reality of Best Practices in Transition: A Case Study. Exceptional Children, 1, 67-78. Janiga, S. , J. ; Costenbader, V. , (2002). The transition from High School to Postsecondary Education for students with Learning disabilities: A Survey of College Service Coordinators. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 5, 462-8, 479.